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\newcommand{\m}{\textbf{\textsf{marelac }}}
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\title{
  \m: Tools for Aquatic Sciences
}
\Plaintitle{marelac}

\Keywords{
  marine, riverine, estuarine, lacustrine, coastal science, utilities,
  constants, \proglang{R}
}

\Plainkeywords{
  marine, riverine, estuarine, lacustrine, coastal science, utilities,
  constants, R
}


\author{Karline Soetaert\\
NIOZ-Yerseke\\
The Netherlands
\And
Thomas Petzoldt\\
Technische Universit\"at Dresden\\
Germany
}

\Plainauthor{Karline Soetaert and Thomas Petzoldt}

\Abstract{
  \R{ }package \m contains chemical and physical
  constants and functions, datasets, routines for unit conversion, and
  other utilities useful for MArine, Riverine, Estuarine, LAcustrine
  and Coastal sciences.
}

%% The address of (at least) one author should be given
%% in the following format:
\Address{
  Karline Soetaert\\
  Royal Netherlands Institute of Sea Research (NIOZ)\\
  4401 NT Yerseke, Netherlands\\
  E-mail: \email{karline.soetaert@nioz.nl}\\
  URL: \url{http://http://www.nioz.nl/}\\
  \\
  Thomas Petzoldt\\
  Institut f\"ur Hydrobiologie\\
  Technische Universit\"at Dresden\\
  01062 Dresden, Germany\\
  E-mail: \email{thomas.petzoldt@tu-dresden.de}\\
  URL: \url{http://tu-dresden.de/Members/thomas.petzoldt/}
}


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<<preliminaries,echo=FALSE,results=hide>>=
library("marelac")
options(prompt = "> ")
options(width=75)
@

\maketitle

\section{Introduction}

\R{ } package \m has been designed as a tool for use by scientists
working in the MArine, Riverine, Estuarine, LAcustrine and Coastal
sciences.

It contains:

\begin{itemize}
\item chemical and physical constants, datasets, e.g. atomic weights, gas
  constants, the earths bathymetry.
\item conversion factors, e.g. gram to mol to liter conversions;
  conversions between different barometric units, temperature units,
  salinity units.
\item physical functions, e.g. to estimate concentrations of
  conservative substances as a function of salinity, gas transfer
  coefficients, diffusion coefficients, estimating the Coriolis force,
  gravity ...
\item the thermophysical properties of the seawater, as from the
  UNESCO polynomial \citep{UNESCO} or as from the more recent
  derivation based on a Gibbs function \citep{Feistel08,McDougall}.
\end{itemize}

Package \m does \emph{not} contain chemical functions dealing with the 
aquatic carbonate system (acidification, pH). These function can be found
in two other \R{ }packages, i.e.
\pkg{seacarb} \citep{seacarb} and \pkg{AquaEnv} \citep{AquaEnv}.
\section{Constants and datasets}

\subsection{Physical constants}

Dataset \code{Constants} contains commonly used physical and chemical
constants, as in \citet{Mohr05}:

<<>>=
data.frame(cbind(acronym = names(Constants),
             matrix(ncol = 3, byrow = TRUE, data = unlist(Constants),
             dimnames=list(NULL, c("value", "units", "description")))))

@

\subsection{Ocean characteristics}

Dataset \code{Oceans} contains surfaces and volumes of the world oceans
as in \citet{Sarmiento06}:

<<>>=
data.frame(cbind(acronym = names(Oceans),
             matrix(ncol = 3, byrow = TRUE, data = unlist(Oceans),
             dimnames = list(NULL, c("value", "units", "description")))))
@

\subsection{World bathymetric data}

Data set \code{Bathymetry} from the \pkg{marelac} package can be used
to generate the bathymetry (and hypsometry) of the world oceans (and
land) (Fig.\ref{fig:f1}):

\begin{verbatim}
require(marelac)
image(Bathymetry$x, Bathymetry$y, Bathymetry$z, col = femmecol(100),
      asp = TRUE, xlab = "", ylab = "")
contour(Bathymetry$x, Bathymetry$y, Bathymetry$z, add = TRUE)
\end{verbatim}
\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.8\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
%%<<label=batfig,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
%%<<bat>>
%%@
\includegraphics{bathymetry.jpeg}
\end{center}
\caption{Image plot of ocean bathymetry - see text for \proglang{R}-code}
\label{fig:f1}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Surface of 1 dg by 1 dg grid cells of the earth}

Function \code{earth_surf} estimates the surface ($\rm m^2$) of the
bathymetric grid cells of 1dg by 1dg, based on their latitude.

As an example, we use it to estimate the surface of the earth; the true
surface is 510072000 $\rm km^2$:

<<>>=
SURF <- outer(X = Bathymetry$x,
              Y = Bathymetry$y,
              FUN <- function(X, Y) earth_surf(Y, X))
sum(SURF)
@
Similarly, we can estimate the surface and volume of the oceans; it should
be $3.58e^{14}$ and $1.34e^{+18}$ respectively.

<<>>=
 sum(SURF*(Bathymetry$z < 0))

- sum(SURF*Bathymetry$z*(Bathymetry$z < 0))
@

Combined with the dataset \code{Bathymetry}, function
\code{earth_surf} allows to estimate the total earth surface at
certain water depths (Fig.\ref{fig:fo}):

<<>>=
SurfDepth <- vector()

dseq <- seq(-7500, -250, by = 250)

for (i in 2:length(dseq)) {
  ii <- which (Bathymetry$z > dseq[i-1] & Bathymetry$z <= dseq[i])
  SurfDepth[i-1]<-sum(SURF[ii])
}
@

<<label=ocean,include=FALSE>>=
plot(dseq[-1], SurfDepth, xlab="depth, m", log = "y",
     ylab = "m2", main = "Surface at ocean depths")
@

\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.4\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
<<label=ocean,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<ocean>>
@
\end{center}
\caption{Earth surface at certain ocean depths - see text for \proglang{R}-code}
\label{fig:fo}
\end{figure}

\subsection{AtomicWeight}

Dataset \code{AtomicWeight} holds the atomic weight of most chemical
elements according to the IUPAC table \citep{Wieser06}. The data set
contains \code{NA} for elements which have no stable isotopes (except
U, Th, Pa). The data set can be called in two
versions. \code{AtomicWeight} shows the full table and
\code{atomicweight} can be used for symbolic computations with the
elements (see also \code{molweight}).

<<>>=
AtomicWeight
AtomicWeight[8, ]
(W_H2O<- with (atomicweight, 2 * H + O))
@

\subsection{Atmospheric composition}

The atmospheric composition, given in units of the moles of each gas
to the total of moles of gas in dry air is in function \code{atmComp}:

<<>>=
atmComp("O2")
atmComp()
sum(atmComp())    #!
@


\section{Physical functions}

\subsection{Coriolis}

Function \code{coriolis} estimates the Coriolis factor, f, units
$sec^{-1}$ according to the formula: $f=2*\omega*\sin(lat)$, where
$\omega=7.292e^{-5} \rm radians\, sec^{-1}$.

The following R-script plots the coriolis factor as a function of latitude
(Fig.\ref{fig:cor}):
<<label=cor,include=FALSE>>=
plot(-90:90, coriolis(-90:90), xlab = "latitude, dg North",
     ylab = "/s" , main = "Coriolis factor", type = "l", lwd = 2)
@
\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.6\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=figcor,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<cor>>
@
\caption{The Coriolis function}
\label{fig:cor}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Molecular diffusion coefficients}

In function \code{diffcoeff} the molecular and ionic diffusion
coefficients ($\rm m^2 s^{-1}$), for several species at given salinity (S)
temperature (t) and pressure (P) is estimated. The implementation is
based on Chapter 4 in \citep{Boudreau97}.

<<>>=
diffcoeff(S = 15, t = 15)*24*3600*1e4  # cm2/day
diffcoeff(t = 10)$O2
@
Values of the diffusion coefficients for a temperature range of 0 to 30 and
for the 13 first species is in (Fig.\ref{fig:diff}):
<<>>=
difftemp <- diffcoeff(t = 0:30)[ ,1:13]
@

<<label=diff,include=FALSE>>=
matplot(0:30, difftemp, xlab = "temperature", ylab = " m2/sec",
        main = "Molecular/ionic diffusion", type = "l")
legend("topleft", ncol = 2, cex = 0.8, title = "mean", col = 1:13, lty = 1:13, 
   legend = cbind(names(difftemp), format(colMeans(difftemp),digits = 4)))
@

\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.6\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=figdif,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<diff>>
@
\caption{Molecular diffusion coefficients as a function of temperature}
\label{fig:diff}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Shear viscosity of water}

Function \code{viscosity} calculates the shear viscosity of water, in
centipoise ($\rm g m^{-1} sec^{-1}$). The formula is valid for $0 < t <
30$ and $0 < S < 36$ (Fig.\ref{fig:vis}).

<<label=visc,include=FALSE>>=
plot(0:30, viscosity(S = 35, t = 0:30, P = 1), xlab = "temperature",
      ylab = "g/m/s", main = "shear viscosity of water",type = "l")
lines(0:30, viscosity(S = 0, t = 0:30, P = 1), col = "red")
lines(0:30, viscosity(S = 35, t = 0:30, P = 100), col = "blue")
legend("topright", col = c("black", "red", "blue"), lty = 1,
        legend = c("S=35, P=1", "S=0, P=1", "S=35, P=100"))
@
\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.6\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=figshear,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<visc>>
@
\caption{Shear viscosity of water as a function of temperature}
\label{fig:vis}
\end{figure}

\section{Dissolved gasses}

\subsection{Saturated oxygen concentrations}

\code{gas_O2sat} estimates the saturated concentration of oxygen in
$\rm mg L^{-1}$. Method APHA \citep{APHA92} is the standard formula in
Limnology, the method after \citet{Weiss70} the traditional formula
used in marine sciences.

<<>>=
gas_O2sat(t = 20)
t <- seq(0, 30, 0.1)
@

Conversion to $\rm mmol~m^{-3}$ can be done as follows:

<<>>=
gas_O2sat(S=35, t=20)*1000/molweight("O2")
@
The effect of salinity on saturated concentration is in (Fig.\ref{fig:o2sat}).
<<label=o2sat,include=FALSE>>=
plot(t, gas_O2sat(t = t), type = "l", ylim = c(0, 15), lwd = 2,
     main = "Oxygen saturation", ylab = "mg/l", xlab = "temperature")
lines(t, gas_O2sat(S = 0, t = t, method = "Weiss"), col = "green",
      lwd = 2, lty = "dashed")
lines(t, gas_O2sat(S = 35, t = t, method = "Weiss"), col = "red", lwd = 2)
legend("topright", c("S=35", "S=0"), col = c("red","green"), 
       lty = c(1, 2), lwd = 2)
@

\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.6\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=figo2sat,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<o2sat>>
@
\caption{Oxygen saturated concentration as a function of temperature, and
  for different salinities}
\label{fig:o2sat}
\end{figure}


\subsection{Solubilities and saturated concentrations}

More solubilities and saturated concentrations (in $\rm mmol m^{-3}$) are in
functions \code{gas_solubility} and \code{gas_satconc}.

<<>>=
gas_satconc(species = "O2")
Temp <- seq(from = 0, to = 30, by = 0.1)
Sal  <- seq(from = 0, to = 35, by = 0.1)
@
We plot the saturated concentrations for a selection of species as a
function of temperature and salinity (Fig.\ref{fig:solub}):
<<label=solub,include=FALSE>>=
#
mf  <-par(mfrow = c(2, 2))
#
gs  <-gas_solubility(t = Temp)
species   <- c("CCl4", "CO2", "N2O", "Rn", "CCl2F2")
matplot(Temp, gs[, species], type = "l", lty = 1, lwd = 2, xlab = "temperature",
     ylab = "mmol/m3", main = "solubility (S=35)")
legend("topright", col = 1:5, lwd = 2, legend = species)
#
species2 <- c("Kr", "CH4", "Ar", "O2", "N2", "Ne")
matplot(Temp, gs[, species2], type = "l", lty = 1, lwd = 2, xlab = "temperature",
     ylab = "mmol/m3", main = "solubility (S=35)")
legend("topright", col = 1:6, lwd = 2, legend = species2)
#

species <- c("N2", "CO2", "O2", "CH4", "N2O")
gsat  <-gas_satconc(t = Temp, species = species)
matplot(Temp, gsat, type = "l", xlab = "temperature", log = "y", lty = 1,
     ylab = "mmol/m3", main = "Saturated conc (S=35)", lwd = 2)
legend("right", col = 1:5, lwd = 2, legend = species)
#
gsat  <-gas_satconc(S = Sal, species = species)
matplot(Sal, gsat, type = "l", xlab = "salinity", log = "y", lty = 1,
     ylab = "mmol/m3", main = "Saturated conc (T=20)", lwd = 2)
legend("right", col = 1:5, lwd = 2, legend = species)
#
par("mfrow" = mf)
@

\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.8\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=figsolub,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<solub>>
@
\caption{Saturated concentrations and solubility as a function of temperature
  and salinity, and for different species}
\label{fig:solub}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Partial pressure of water vapor}

Function \code{vapor} estimates the partial pessure of water vapor, divided by
the atmospheric pressure (Fig.\ref{fig:vapor}).

<<label=vapor,include=FALSE>>=
plot(0:30, vapor(t = 0:30), xlab = "Temperature, dgC", ylab = "pH2O/P",
     type = "l")
@

\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.6\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=figvapor,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<vapor>>
@
\caption{Partial pressure of water in saturated air as a function of
  temperature}
\label{fig:vapor}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Schmidt number and gas transfer velocity}

The Schmidt number of a gas (\code{gas_schmidt}) is an essential
quantity in the gas transfer velocity calculation
(\code{gas_transfer}). The latter also depends on wind velocity, as
measured 10 metres above sea level ($u_{10}$)) (Fig.\ref{fig:transfer}).

<<>>=
gas_schmidt(species = "CO2", t = 20)

useq <- 0:15
@

<<label=transfer,include=FALSE>>=
plot(useq, gas_transfer(u10 = useq, species = "O2"), type = "l", 
     lwd = 2, xlab = "u10,m/s", ylab = "m/s", 
     main = "O2 gas transfer velocity", ylim = c(0, 3e-4))
lines(useq, gas_transfer(u10 = useq, species = "O2", method = "Nightingale"),
      lwd = 2, lty = 2)
lines(useq, gas_transfer(u10 = useq, species = "O2", method = "Wanninkhof1"), 
      lwd = 2, lty = 3)
lines(useq, gas_transfer(u10 = useq, species = "O2", method = "Wanninkhof2"),
      lwd = 2, lty = 4)

legend("topleft", lty = 1:4, lwd = 2, legend = c("Liss and Merlivat 1986",
   "Nightingale et al. 2000", "Wanninkhof 1992", "Wanninkhof and McGills 1999"))
@

\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.6\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=figtransfer,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<transfer>>
@
\caption{Oxygen gas transfer velocity for seawater, as a function of wind speed}
\label{fig:transfer}
\end{figure}

\section{Seawater properties}

\subsection{Concentration of conservative species in seawater}

Borate, calcite, sulphate and fluoride concentrations can be estimated
as a function of the seawater salinity:

<<>>=
sw_conserv(S = seq(0, 35, by = 5))
@

\subsection{Two salinity scales}

\citet{Millero08} and \citet{McDougall09} provide a function to derive
absolute salinity (expressed in $\rm g~kg^{-1}$) from measures of
practical salinity. Absolute salinity is to be used as the
concentration variable entering the thermodynamic functions of
seawater (see next section).

The conversion between salinity scales is done with functions:

\begin{itemize}
\item \code{convert_AStoPS} from absolute to practical salinity and
\item \code{convert_PStoAS} from practical to absolute salinity
\end{itemize}

For example:

<<>>=
convert_AStoPS(S = 35)
convert_PStoAS(S = 35)
@

These functions have as extra arguments the gauge pressure (\code{p}),
latitude (\code{lat}), longitude (\code{lon}), and -optional- the
dissolved Si concentration (\code{DSi}) and the ocean (\code{Ocean}).

When one of these arguments are provided, they also correct for
inconsistencies due to local composition anomalies.

When \code{DSi} is not given, the correction makes use of a conversion
table that estimates the salinity variations as a function of
present-day local seawater composition. The conversion in R uses the
FORTRAN code developed by D. Jackett
(\url{http://www.marine.csiro.au/\~jackett/TEOS-10/}).

The correction factors are in a data set called \code{sw_sfac}, a list
with the properties used in the conversion functions.

Below we first convert from practical to absolute salinity, for
different longitudes, and then plot the correction factors as a
function of latitude and longitude and at the seawater surface,
i.e. for \code{p=0} (Fig.\ref{fig:sfac}).\footnote{Before plotting, the negative numbers
  in the salinity anomaly table \code{sw\_sfac} are converted to
  \code{NA} (not available).  In the data set, numbers not available
  are denoted with \code{-99}.}.

<<>>=
convert_PStoAS(S = 35, lat = -10, lon = 0)
convert_PStoAS(S = 35, lat = 0, lon = 0)
convert_PStoAS(S = 35, lat = 10, lon = 0)
convert_PStoAS(S = 35, lat = -10, lon = 0)

convert_PStoAS(S = 35, lat = -10, DSi = 1:10, Ocean = "Pacific")

dsal <- t(sw_sfac$del_sa[1, , ])
dsal [dsal < -90] <- NA
@
<<label=sfac,include=FALSE>>=
image(sw_sfac$longs, sw_sfac$lats, dsal, col = femmecol(100),
      asp = TRUE, xlab = "dg", ylab = "dg",
      main = "salinity conversion - p = 0 bar")
contour(sw_sfac$longs, sw_sfac$lats, dsal, asp = TRUE, add = TRUE)
@
\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.6\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=sfac,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<sfac>>
@
\caption{Salinity anomaly to convert from practical to absolute salinity
and vice versa}
\label{fig:sfac}
\end{figure}
Finally, the correction factors are plotted versus depth, at four latitudinal
cross-sections (Fig.\ref{fig:sfac2}):
<<label=sfac2,include=FALSE>>=
ii <- c(6, 21, 24, 43)
par(mfrow = c(2, 2))
for ( i in ii)
{
dsal <- t(sw_sfac$del_sa[ ,i, ])
dsal [dsal < -90] <- 0
image(sw_sfac$longs, sw_sfac$p, dsal, col = c("black", femmecol(100)),
      xlab = "longitude, dg", ylab = "depth, m", zlim = c(0, 0.018),
      main = sw_sfac$lat[i], ylim = c(6000, 0))
contour(sw_sfac$longs, sw_sfac$p, dsal, asp = TRUE, add = TRUE)
}
@
\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.6\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=sfac2,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<sfac2>>
@
\caption{Salinity anomaly to convert from practical to absolute salinity
and vice versa for several latitudinal cross-sections (negative = S hemisphere)}
\label{fig:sfac2}
\end{figure}


\subsection{Thermophysical seawater properties}

Package \m also implements several thermodynamic properties of
seawater. Either one can choose the formulation based on the UNESCO
polynomial \citep{UNESCO}, which has served the oceanographic
community for decades, or the more recent derivation as in
\citet{Feistel08}. In the latter case the estimates are based on three
individual thermodynamic potentials for fluid water, for ice and for
the saline contribution of seawater (the Helmholtz function for pure
water, an equation of state for salt-free ice, in the form of a Gibbs
potential function, and the saline part of the Gibbs potential).

Note that the formulations from \citet{Feistel08} use the absolute
salinity scale \citep{Millero08}, while the UNESCO polynomial uses
practical salinity.

<<>>=
sw_cp(S = 40,t = 1:20)
sw_cp(S = 40,t = 1:20, method = "UNESCO")
@

The precision of the calculations can be assessed by comparing them to
some test values:

<<>>=
t  <-  25.5
p  <- 1023/10  # pressure in bar
S  <- 35.7
sw_alpha(S, t, p)               -0.0003098378393192645
sw_beta(S, t, p)                -0.0007257297978386655
sw_cp(S,t, p)                   -3974.42541259729
sw_tpot(S, t, p)                -25.2720983155409
sw_dens(S, t, p)                -1027.95249315662
sw_enthalpy(S, t, p)            -110776.712408975
sw_entropy(S, t, p)             -352.81879771528
sw_kappa(S, t, p)               -4.033862685464779e-6
sw_kappa_t(S, t, p)             -4.104037946151349e-6
sw_svel(S, t, p)                -1552.93372863425
@

Below we plot all implemented thermophysical properties as a function
of salinity and temperature (Fig.\ref{fig:sw}, \ref{fig:sw2}).
We first define a function that makes the plots:

<<label=sw,include=FALSE>>=
plotST <- function(fun, title)
{
  Sal  <-  seq(0, 40, by = 0.5)
  Temp <- seq(-5, 40, by = 0.5)

  Val <- outer(X = Sal, Y = Temp, FUN = function(X, Y) fun(S = X, t = Y))
  contour(Sal, Temp, Val, xlab = "Salinity", ylab = "temperature",
          main = title, nlevel = 20)
}

par (mfrow = c(3, 2))
par(mar = c(4, 4, 3, 2))
plotST(sw_gibbs, "Gibbs function")
plotST(sw_cp, "Heat capacity")
plotST(sw_entropy, "Entropy")
plotST(sw_enthalpy, "Enthalpy")
plotST(sw_dens, "Density")
plotST(sw_svel, "Sound velocity")
@

\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.9\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=sw,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<sw>>
@
\caption{Seawater properties as a function of salinity and temperature -
  see text for \proglang{R}-code}
\label{fig:sw}
\end{figure}

<<label=sw2,include=FALSE>>=
par (mfrow = c(3, 2))
par(mar = c(4, 4, 3, 2))
plotST(sw_kappa, "Isentropic compressibility")
plotST(sw_kappa_t, "Isothermal compressibility")
plotST(sw_alpha, "Thermal expansion coefficient")
plotST(sw_beta, "Haline contraction coefficient")
plotST(sw_adtgrad, "Adiabatic temperature gradient")
par (mfrow = c(1, 1))
@
\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.9\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=sw2,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<sw2>>
@
\caption{Seawater properties as a function of salinity and temperature -
  continued - see text for \proglang{R}-code}
\label{fig:sw2}
\end{figure}

The difference between the two formulations, based on the UNESCO polynomial
or the Gibss function is also instructive (Fig.\ref{fig:sw3}):
<<label=sw3,include=FALSE>>=
par (mfrow = c(2, 2))
par(mar = c(4, 4, 3, 2))
plotST(function(S, t) sw_dens(S, t, method = "UNESCO") - sw_dens(S, t),
  "Density UNESCO - Gibbs")
plotST(function(S, t) sw_cp(S, t, method = "UNESCO") - sw_cp(S, t),
  "Heat capacity UNESCO - Gibbs")
plotST(function(S, t) sw_svel(S, t, method = "UNESCO") - sw_svel(S, t),
  "Sound velocity UNESCO - Gibbs")
par (mfrow = c(1, 1))
@
\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.9\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=sw3,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<sw3>>
@
\caption{Difference between two methods of calculating some seawater
  properties as a function of salinity and temperature -
  see text for \proglang{R}-code}
\label{fig:sw3}
\end{figure}


\clearpage %% output of all the many figures before

\section{Conversions}

Finally, several functions are included to convert between units of
certain properties.

\subsection{Gram, mol, liter conversions}

\m function \code{molweight} converts from gram to moles and vice
versa. The function is based on a lexical parser and the IUPAC table of
atomic weights, so it should be applicable to arbitrary chemical
formulae:

<<>>=
1/molweight("CO3")
1/molweight("HCO3")
1/molweight(c("C2H5OH", "CO2", "H2O"))

molweight(c("SiOH4", "NaHCO3", "C6H12O6", "Ca(HCO3)2", "Pb(NO3)2", "(NH4)2SO4"))
@

We can use that to estimate the importance of molecular weight on
certain physical properties (Fig.\ref{fig:mw}):

<<>>=
#species <- colnames(gs)  ## thpe: does not work any more, because 1D return value is vector
species = c("He", "Ne", "N2", "O2",
  "Ar", "Kr", "Rn", "CH4", "CO2", "N2O", "CCl2F2", "CCl3F", "SF6", "CCl4")
gs <- gas_solubility(species = species)
mw <- molweight(species)
@
<<label=mwgs,include=FALSE>>=
plot(mw, gs, type = "n", xlab = "molecular weight", 
     ylab = "solubility", log = "y")
text(mw, gs, species)
@

\setkeys{Gin}{width=0.6\textwidth}
\begin{figure}
\centering
<<label=mwgs,fig=TRUE,echo=FALSE>>=
<<mwgs>>
@
\caption{Gas solubility as a function of molecular weight
  see text for \proglang{R}-code}
\label{fig:mw}
\end{figure}

%% ThPe: is this correct this way:
Function \code{molvol} estimates the volume of one liter of a specific gas or
the molar volume of an \code{ideal} gas.

<<>>=
molvol(species = "ideal")
molvol(species = "ideal", t = 1:10)
@
<<>>=
1/molvol(species = "O2", t = 0)*1000
1/molvol(species = "O2", q = 1:6, t = 0)
1/molvol(t = 1:5, species = c("CO2", "O2", "N2O"))
@

\subsection{Average elemental composition of biomass}


The average elemental composition of marine plankton (Redfield ratio)
is traditionally assumed to be $\rm C_{106}H_{263}O_{110}N_{16}P_{1}$
\citep{Redfield1934, Redfield1963, Richards1965}, while Limnologists
sometimes assume a ratio of $\rm C_{106}H_{180}O_{45}N_{16}P_{1}$
\citep{Stumm1964}. Since then, the ratio of C:N:P was widely agreed,
but there is still discussion about the average of O and H.
\citet{Anderson1995} proposed a new formula 
$\rm C_{106}H_{175}O_{42}N_{16}P_{1}$ for marine plankton and similarly
\citet{Hedges2002}, who used NMR analysis, found an elemental
composition with much less hydrogen and oxygen ($\rm
C_{106}H_{175-180}O_{35-40}N_{15-20}S_{0.3-0.5}$) than in the original
formula.

Function \code{redfield} can be used to simplify conversions between
the main elements of biomass, where the default molar ratio can be
displayed by:

<<>>=
redfield(1, "P")
@

The second argument of the function allows to rescale this to any of
the constitutional elements, e.g. to nitrogen:

<<>>=
redfield(1, "N")
@

In addition, it is also possible to request the output in mass units,
e.g. how many mass units of the elements are related to 2 mass units
(e.g. mg) of phosphorus:

<<>>=
redfield(2, "P", "mass")
@

Finally, mass percentages can be obtained by:

<<>>=
x <- redfield(1, "P", "mass")
x / sum(x)
@

or by using an alternative alternative elemental composition with:

<<>>=
stumm <- c(C = 106, H = 180, O = 45, N = 16, P = 1)
x <- redfield(1, "P", "mass", ratio = stumm)
x / sum(x)
@

Note however, that all these formulae are intended to approximate the
\textbf{average} biomass composition and that large differences are
natural for specific observations, depending on the involved species
and their physiological state.


\subsection{Pressure conversions }

\code{convert_p} converts between the different barometric scales:

<<>>=
convert_p(1, "atm")
@

\subsection{Temperature conversions}

Function \code{convert_T} converts between different temperature
scales (Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit):

<<>>=
convert_T(1, "C")
@

\subsection{Salinity and chlorinity}

The relationship between Salinity, chlorinity and conductivity is in
various functions:

<<>>=
convert_StoCl(S = 35)
convert_RtoS(R = 1)
convert_StoR(S = 35)
@

\section{Finally}

This vignette was made with Sweave \citep{Leisch02}.

\clearpage
\bibliography{vignettes}

\end{document}
